ASSESSMENT OF UNDERWATER CONSTRUCTION NOISE IMPACT FROM PILE DRIVING ON MARINE MAMMALS IN THE SOLOVETSKY BAY, THE WHITE SEA: NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS OF NOISE PROPAGATION AND ITS DIRECT MEASUREMENTS

Authors

  • A. A. Lunkov Shirshov Institute of oceanology, Russian Academy of Science; Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences
  • R. A. Belikov Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences
  • A. V. Shatravin Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences
  • A. D. Chernetsky Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences
  • E. A. Belikova Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences
  • O. Yu. Kochetov Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, Russian Academy of Sciences
  • O. B. Ovchinnikov Shirshov Institute of oceanology, Russian Academy of Science; Andreev Institute of Acoustics

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29006/1564-2291.JOR-2026.54(2).7

Keywords:

numerical modeling, noise propagation, anthropogenic noise impact, construction noise, impact pile driving, vibratory pile driving, beluga whale, ringed seal, bearded seal, the White Sea

Abstract

In connection with the start of construction of the technological and passenger berths in the settlement of Solovetsky, an assessment of the potential impact of underwater noise during pile driving on marine mammals was conducted. Using the wide-angle parabolic equation method, taking into account the complex bathymetry, numerical simulations were performed to determine the propagation of underwater noise across the waters of the Solovetsky Bay. The noise was generated during pile driving with a hydraulic hammer and a vibratory driver. According to the simulation results, when using a hammer, an excess of the hazardous level of 160 dB re 1 μPa will be observed up to a distance of about 1 km along the shipping channel, and with vibratory driving, only at a distance of up to 30 m from the pile installation site. Noise exceeding the level of 120 dB re 1 μPa, which could cause behavioral disturbances, could propagate to a distance of slightly more than 1 km during vibration piling, and to a distance of about 16 km during impact hammer pile driving. However, the most favorable conditions for noise propagation are observed along the shipping lane; in other directions, noise propagation is significantly hindered by the presence of shallows and islands. Due to the difficulty of noise propagation in shallow waters with complex bathymetry, the impact of noise on marine mammals during pile driving is estimated to be local and insignificant. Noise during vibratory pile driving had, likely, no effect on belugas in the Solovetsky Bay. The impact on bearded seals and ringed seals would have been significant if a hammer had been used, but for vibratory pile driving, given the low occurrence of seals in the study area and their possible tolerance to anthropogenic noise, the impact was assessed as insignificant. The importance of local noise propagation conditions and the biological and ecological characteristics of marine mammal species for accurately assessing the potential impact of anthropogenic noise are demonstrated.

References


  1. Awbrey, F. T., J. A. Thomas, and R. A. Kastelein, 1988: Low‐frequency underwater hearing sensitivity in belugas, Delphinapterus leucas. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 84, 2273–2275, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.397022.

  2. Belikov, R. A., V. V. Krasnova, A. V. Shatravin, E. M. Panova, A. D. Chernetsky, E. A. Belikova, N. V. Kryukova, M. M. Taganova, and A. V. Gebruk, 2025: Results of studies of beluga whales, Delphinapterus leucas, in the waters of the Solovetsky archipelago and assessment of soundscapes of their habitats in summer 2024. Journal of oceanological research, 53 (1), 87–118, EDN: OOMRNX, https://doi.ocean.ru/10.29006/1564-2291.JOR-2025.53(1).5.

  3. Bel’kovich, V. M., A. D. Cherneckij, and O. I. Kirillova, 2002: Biologiya belukh (Delphinapterus leucas) yuzhnoj chasti Belogo morya (Biology of Beluga Whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in the Southern Part of the White Sea). Morskie mlekopitayushchie: rezul’taty issledovanij, provedennyh v 1995–1998 gg. (Marine mammals: results of research conducted in 1995–1998), Moscow, 53–78.

  4. Blackwell, S. B., J. W. Lawson, and M. T. Williams, 2004: Tolerance by ringed seals (Phoca hispida) to impact pipe-driving and construction sounds at an oil production island. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 115 (5), 2346–2357, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1701899.

  5. Branstetter, B. K., V. F. Bowman, D. S. Houser, M. Tormey, P. Banks, J. J. Finneran, and K. Jenkins, 2018: Effects of vibratory pile driver noise on echolocation and vigilance in bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 143 (1), 429–439, EDN: LFBLXG, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.5021555.

  6. Castellote, M., B. Thayre, M. Mahoney, J. Mondragon, M. O. Lammers, and R. J. Small, 2019: Anthropogenic noise and the endangered Cook Inlet beluga whale, Delphinapterus leucas: Acoustic considerations for management. Mar. Fish. Rev., 80, 63–88, https://doi.org/10.7755/MFR.80.3.3.

  7. Chernetskij, A. D., 2021: Solovetskoe reproduktivnoe skoplenie kak struktura edinitsa belomorskoj populyatsii belukhi (Delphinapterus leucas). Diss. kand. biolog. nauk (Solovetsky reproductive gathering as a structural unit of the White Sea beluga’s population. Cand. biolog. sci. thesis), Moscow, IO RAS, 137 p., EDN: IWWEZY

  8. Chernetsky, A. D. and V. V. Krasnova, 2018: The structure of the reproductive gathering of beluga whales, Delphinapterus leucas (Pallas, 1776), off Solovetsky Island (White Sea) as inferred from results of photo identification in 2007–2013. Russ. J. Mar. Biol., 44 (5), 394–403, EDN: EETLYX, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063074018050048.

  9. Collins, M. D., 1994: Generalization of the split‐step Padé solution. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 96 (1), 382–385, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.410488.

  10. Cornick, L., S. Love, L. Pinney, C. Smith, and Z. Zartler, 2011: Distribution, habitat use and behavior of Cook Inlet beluga whales and other marine mammals at the Port of Anchorage marine terminal redevelopment project, June–November 2011. Sci. Mar. Mammal Monitoring Prog., Annual Rep. Alaska Pacific Univ., Dep. Environ. Sci., 55 p. (Avail. online at https://alaskafisheries.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/2011poammannualrpt.pdf).

  11. Cosens, S. E. and L. P. Dueck, 1993: Icebreaker noise in lancaster sound, N.W.T., Canada: implications for marine mammal behavior. Mar. Mamm. Sci., 9 (3), 285–300, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-7692.1993.tb00456.x.

  12. Dahl, P. H., C. A. F. de Jong, and A. N. Popper, 2015a: The underwater sound field from impact pile driving and its potential effects on marine life. Acous. Today, 11 (2), 18–25.

  13. Dahl, P. H., D. R. Dall’Osto, and D. M. Farrell, 2015b: The underwater sound field from vibratory pile driving. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 137 (6), 3544–3554, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.4921288.

  14. Erbe, C., C. Reichmuth, K. Cunningham, K. Lucke, and R. Dooling, 2016: Communication masking in marine mammals: A review and research strategy. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 103, 15–38, EDN: WPVZTH, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2015.12.007.

  15. Finley, K. J., 1990: Reactions of beluga (Delphinapterus leucas) and narwhals (Monodon monoceros) to ice-breaking ships in the Canadian High Artic. Canadian Bulletin of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 224, 97–117, https://waves-vagues.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/119072.pdf.

  16. Graham, I. M., E. Pirotta, N. D. Merchant, A. Farcas, T. R. Barton, B. Cheney, G. D. Hastie, and P. M. Thompson, 2017: Responses of bottlenose dolphins and harbor porpoises to impact and vibration piling noise during harbor construction. Ecosphere, 8 (5), p. e01793, https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.1793.

  17. Guan, S. and R. Miner, 2020: Underwater noise characterization of down-the-hole pile driving activities off Biorka island, Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 160 (4), p. 111664, EDN: KLIWZI, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111664.

  18. Herbert-Read, J. E., L. Kremer, R. Bruintjes, A. N. Radford, and C. C. Ioannou, 2017: Anthropogenic noise pollution from pile-driving disrupts the structure and dynamics of fish shoals Proc. R. Soc B, 284 (1863), p. 20171627, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2017.1627.

  19. Huang, L-F., X-M. Xu, L-L. Yang, S-Q. Huang, X-H. Zhang, and Y-L. Zhou, 2023: Underwater noise characteristics of offshore exploratory drilling and its impact on marine mammals. Front. Mar. Sci., 10, p. 1097701, EDN: LBELGW, https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2023.1097701.

  20. Jensen, F. B., W. A. Kuperman, M. B. Porter, and H. Schmidt, 2011: Computational Ocean acoustics. New York, Springer, 794 p., [tabl. 1.3 on p. 39], https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-1-4419-8678-8.

  21. Johnson, C. S., M. W. McManus, and D. Skaar, 1989: Masked tonal hearing thresholds in the beluga whale. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 85 (6), 2651–2654, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.397759.

  22. Kastak, D. and R. J. Schusterman, 1998: Low-frequency amphibious hearing in pinnipeds: Methods, measurements, noise, and ecology. Journal of the Acoustal Society of America, 103 (4), 2216–2228, EDN: YCQFCH, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.421367.

  23. Kastelein, R. A., L. Helder-Hoek, L. Van Acoleyen, J. M. Terhune, T. Van Renterghem, and D. Botteldooren, 2025: By lifting their heads above water, harbor seals (Phoca vitulina) can reduce their exposure to underwater sounds below 8 kHz. Aquatic Mammals, 51 (6), 421–437, EDN: TCUMXV, https://doi.org/10.1578/am.51.6.2025.421.

  24. Kendall, L. S. and L. A. Cornick, 2015: Behavior and distribution of Cook Inlet beluga whales, Delphinapterus leucas, before and during pile driving activity. Marine Fisheries Review, 77 (2), 106–114, https://doi.org/10.7755/MFR.77.2.6.

  25. Kendall, L. S., A. Širovic, and E. H. Roth, 2013: Effects of construction noise on the Cook Inlet beluga whale (Delphinapterus leucas) vocal behavior. Can. Acoust., 41 (3), 1–13, EDN: SONVWV

  26. Krasnova, V. V., E. A. Prasolova, R. A. Belikov, A. D. Chernetsky, and E. M. Panova, 2020: Influence of boat tourism on the behaviour of Solovetskiy beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) in Onega Bay, the White Sea. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 30 (10), 1922–1933, EDN: NOZKKP, https://doi.org/10.1002/aqc.3369.

  27. Lukin, L. R., G. N. Ognetov, and N. S. Boyko, 2006: Ehkologiya kol’chatoj nerpy v Belom more. (Ecology of the Ringed Seal in the White Sea). Yekaterinburg, Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 164, [1] p.: ill., tables, color ill., ISBN 5-7691-1700-1, EDN: OTXXMP

  28. Martin, M. J., W. D. Halliday, L. Storrie, J. J. Citta, J. Dawson, N. E. Hussey, F. Juanes, L. L. Loseto, S. A. MacPhee, L. Moore, A. Nicoll, G. O’Corry-Crowe, and S. J. Insley, 2023a: Exposure and behavioral responses of tagged beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucas) to ships in the Pacific Arctic. Marine Mammal Science, 39 (2), 387–421, EDN: EVALSA, https://doi.org/10.1111/mms.12978.

  29. Martin, M., T. Gridley, S. Elwen, and I. Charrier, 2023b: Inter-site variability in the Cape fur seal’s behavioural response to boat noise exposure. Mar. Pollut. Bull., 196, p. 115589, EDN: VTTKJH, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2023.115589.

  30. Mikkelsen, L., M. Johnson, D. M. Wisniewska, A. van Neer, U. Siebert, P. T. Madsen, and J. Teilmann, 2019: Long‐term sound and movement recording tags to study natural behavior and reaction to ship noise of seals. Ecol. Evol., 9, 2588–2601, EDN: WOLITZ, https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4923.

  31. Moulton, V. D., W. J. Richardson, M. T. Williams, and S. B. Blackwell, 2003: Ringed seal densities and noise near an icebound artificial island with construction and drilling. ARLO, 4, 112–117, https://doi.org/10.1121/1.1605091.

  32. Nedwell, J. and D. Howell, 2004: A review of offshore windfarm related underwater noise sources. Cowrie Rep., 544, 57 p., https://tethys.pnnl.gov/sites/default/files/publications/Nedwell-Howell-2004.pdf.

  33. Parabolic equation models – https://oalib-acoustics.org/website_resources/PE/archive/.(дата обращения 15.01.2026)

  34. Prawirasasraa, M. S., M. Jüssib, M. Mustonena, and A. Klausona, 2022: Underwater noise impact of a ferry route on dive patterns of transiting Baltic ringed seals. Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences, 71 (4), 201–213, EDN: OEIWCU, https://doi.org/10.3176/earth.2022.14.

  35. Richardson, W. J., C. R. Greene, Jr. C. I. Malme, and D. H. Thomson, 1995: Marine Mammals and Noise. San Diego, Academic Press, 576 p., EDN: YHLOTO, https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-02253-3.

  36. Ruser, A., K. Anderson Hansen, M. Wahlberg, T. Schaffeld, and U. Siebert, 2025: Underwater audiogram of the grey seal (Halichoerus grypus). Biology Open, 14 (8), p. bio062059, EDN: JUAWKF, https://doi.org/10.1242/bio.062059.

  37. Russell, D. J. F., G. D. Hastie, D. Thompson, V. M. Janik, P. S. Hammond, L. A. S. Scott-Hayward, J. Matthiopoulos, E. L. Jones, and B. J. McConnell, 2016: Avoidance of wind farms by harbour seals is limited to pile driving activities. J. Appl. Ecol., 53 (6), 1642–1652, https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.12678.

  38. Rutenko, A. N., D. S. Manul’chev, and A. A. Solov’ev, 2013: Study of low-frequency-acoustic- and seismic-wave energy propagation on the shelf. Acoustical Physics, 59, 319–332, EDN: RFHERJ, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063771013030111.

  39. Rutenko, A. N., M. M. Zykov, V. A. Gritsenko, M. Yu. Fershalov, M. R. Jenkerson, D. S. Manulchev, R. Racca, and V. E. Nechayuk, 2022: Acoustic monitoring and analyses of air gun, pile driving, vessel, and ambient sounds during the 2015 seismic surveys on the Sakhalin shelf. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194 (744), EDN: JMTUPO, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-022-10021-y.

  40. Sills, J. M., B. L. Southall, and C. Reichmuth, 2015: Amphibious hearing in ringed seals (Pusa hispida): underwater audiograms, aerial audiograms and critical ratio measurements. J. Exp. Biol., 218 (14), 2250–2259, https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.120972.

  41. Sills, J. M., C. Reichmuth, B. L. Southall, A. Whiting, and J. Goodwin, 2020: Auditory biology of bearded seals (Erignathus barbatus). Polar Biol., 43, 1681–1691, EDN: SIGGRI, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00300-020-02736-w.

  42. Širovic, A. and L. S. Kendall, 2009: Passive acoustic monitoring of Cook Inlet beluga whales. Analysis report. Prep. by AK Pacific University for Port of Anchorage, Dec. 2009, 73 p. (avail. online at www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/permits/poa_acoustic_report.pdf).

  43. Solovej, N. A., V. A. Zhigulʹskij, and E. V. Knyazhenko, 2012: Ekologicheskie aspekty otsenki i normirovaniya shuma pri proektirovanii portov (Environmental aspects of noise assessment and rationing in port design). Sovremennye problemy nauki i obrazovaniya. (Modern problems of science and education), 1, 152, EDN: OXCEGP

  44. Southall, B. L., J. J. Finneran, C. Reichmuth, P. E. Nachtigall, D. R. Ketten, A. E. Bowles, W. T. Ellison, D. P. Nowacek, and P. L. Tyack, 2019: Marine mammal noise exposure criteria: Updated scientific recommendations for residual hearing effects. Aquatic Mammals, 45 (2), 125–232, EDN: KCKPFI, https://doi.org/10.1578/AM.45.2.2019.125.

  45. Tarovik, V. I., O. V. Savchenko, and N. G. Kutaeva, 2022: Technogenic underwater noise as a factor in the environmental safety of maritime transport and industrial activities in the Arctic. Arktika ekologiya i ekonomika (Arctic ecology and economics), 12 (1), 99–110, EDN: ACBNEN, https://doi.org/10.25283/2223-4594-2022-1-99-110.

  46. Urick, R. J., 1983: Principles of underwater sound. 3rd edition, Los Atlos, California, Peninsula Publishing, 423 p., https://inquietlq.firebaseapp.com/aa543/principles-of-underwater-sound-3rd-edition-by-robert-j-urick-0932146627.pdf.

  47. Wang, Z., Y. Wu, G. Duan, H. Cao, J. Liu, K. Wang, and D. Wang, 2014: Assessing the underwater acoustics of the world’s largest vibration hammer (OCTA-KONG) and its potential effects on the Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis). PLoS One, 9 (10), p. e110590, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0110590.

Downloads

Published

2026-06-30

Issue

Vol. 54 No. 2 (2026): Journal of Oceanological Research

Section

Ecology of seas and oceans

License

Transfer of copyrights occurs on the basis of a license agreement between the Author and Shirshov Institute of Oceanology, RAS

Most read articles by the same author(s)